Logic and
Critical Thinking

Philosophy 4

Gale Justin

The objective of today’s class is learn how to distinguish arguments from explanations.

uWe begin by reminding ourselves of what an argument is.

uWe then compare passages that contain arguments with passages that contain explanations.

uFinally, we look at some ways in which arguments can be distinguished from explanations.

An argument is a group of propositions (or statements). The statements have a certain kind of relationship to one another. Specifically, one or more of the statements is given as a reason to accept the truth of one other statement.

Here is an argument:

uTelemarketers often use computer systems that try to get you on the line even before a salesperson is ready. So as soon as you hear a delay, you should hang up. Because if it’s an automated calling system, it won’t call you back. And if it’s a friend, he will.

Putting this argument into standard form, it looks like this:

Premiss: If it’s an automated calling system, it won’t call you back.

Premiss: If it’s a friend, he will.

__________________________________

Conclusion: So as soon as you hear a delay, you should hang up.

Two kinds of claims usually show up as conclusions of arguments:

uRecommendations

uReports of Investigations

Here is an argument that reports the result of an investigation:

It will probably rain here within twenty-four hours. Because we have a storm system just south of Elko. Such systems normally get here the next day.

In standard form the argument looks like this:

Premiss: We have a storm system just south of Elko.

Premiss: Such systems normally get here the next day.

__________________________________

Conclusion: So it will probably rain here within twenty-four hours.

Special names are given to the propositions or statements that compose a philosophical argument.

uThe statements that are regarded as offering reasons are called premisses.

uThe one statement that is being recommended on the basis of the reason(s) is called the conclusion.

Arguments always have at least one premiss and always have only one conclusion. But:

uThe order in which the premisses are stated can vary. Premisses can be stated before or after the conclusion. In some cases, some premisses may be stated before and others may be stated after the conclusion.

uTo arrange an argument in standard form, write out the premisses first, draw a line, then write out the conclusion.

For example:

Research assistants are often graduate students, so faculty who do research should not be thought of as shortchanging their students. Moreover, part of the money for the research project often goes to the university.

In standard form, the latter argument looks like this:

Premiss: Research assistants are often graduate students.

Premiss: Part of the money for the research project often goes to the university.

_______________________________

Conclusion: Faculty who do research should not be thought of as shortchanging their students.

Here’s another argument in standard form:

Premiss: Only the A’s and the Angels can win the West.

Premiss: The A’s have a better pitching staff than the Angels.

Premiss: The A’s have more home games for the rest of the season than the Angels have.

---------------------------------------------------------

Conclusion: Only the A’s can win the West.

Here’s another example of standard form:

Premiss: As head of FEMA Bush appointed a lawyer with no background in emergency management.

Premiss: Clinton’s FEMA head was a man with 15 years of public safety experience.

__________________________________

Conclusion: George Bush makes less competent appointments than Bill Clinton made

What is the point of giving an argument?

uIn giving an argument, you want to show someone that what you are saying is true.

uIn particular, you want to persuade the person either that some action is a good one (e.g. hanging up on a telemarketer) or that some conclusion you have reached is true (e.g. It will probably rain here within 24 hours.)

When reading a passage, the best way to begin the process of extracting its argument is to identify the conclusion. That is,

uAsk yourself first “What am I supposed to believe as a result of reading this passage?” Whatever that is, that is likely to be the conclusion.

uThen identify the premiss(es) by asking “What reasons are given for me to believe that the conclusion is ture?”

Not all pieces of reasoning are, however, arguments. Some are explanations.

uYou offer an explanation, not to persuade someone of the truth of what you are saying, but to help them better understand some event that has already occurred.

Here are two examples of explanations:

uAn Amtrak train derailed on Wednesday, injuring 74 people. It jumped a track that had been tampered with.

uThe blood supply at the county blood bank is running low. The shortage is due to a greater than usual number of open heart surgeries coupled with the fact that fewer people are donating blood.

The crucial difference between an explanation and an argument is that:

In an explanation, you are being told why or how an event that could be “directly known” has happened, whereas in an argument, you are being told why it is reasonable to infer something that can only be “indirectly known” on the basis of reasons.

Compare:

u“An Amtrak train derailed on Wednesday, injuring 74 people” and “The blood supply at the county blood bank is running low.”

u“You should hang up” and “It will probably rain here within twenty-four hours”

Please notice that:

uYou could “directly know” that the Amtrak train derailed and also “directly know” that the blood supply at the county blood bank is running low.

uYou can only “indirectly know” that you should hang up, if a telemarketer calls and also only “indirectly know” that “it will probably rain here within twenty four hours.

To explain:

uThe event being explained has happened and has been observed by someone. What is not always known is just why what happened did happen. Explanations are given to increase your understanding of the event that you or someone else has observed.

uThe conclusion of an argument goes beyond what you can directly know. It recommends, predicts, states an opinion the truth of which cannot yet (or perhaps ever) be directly known.

How to distinguish between arguments and explanations:

uAsk yourself: Is the point of the passage to persuade you of something or to tell you why something has happened?

uIs one of the statements of the passage only known to be true “indirectly” on the basis of other statements in the passage or is one statement such that it can be known “directly” and the other statements of the passage show up in order to increase your understanding of the directly known statement.

Now do groupwork on distinguishing arguments from explanations.

Standard form of Explanations:

uConsider: “An Amtrak train derailed on Wednesday, injuring 74 people. It jumped a track that had been tampered with.

uExplanadum: An Amtrak train derailed on Wednesday, injuring 74 people.

uExplanans: It jumped a track that had been tampered with.

The terms used to identify parts of the explanation have the following meanings:

uExplanadum: This term denotes or refers to the event being explained.

uExplanans: This term denotes or refers to the condition(s) that is being offered to explain why or how the event occurred.

To sum up:

uArguments differ from explanations, although in some cases a passage can function in both ways. For the moment, we shall focus on passages where the reasoning is of either the one or the other kind.

uArguments offer you reasons to believe some statement, not directly knowable, is true.

uExplanations tell you why or how something that can be directly known has happened.

Note:

uThe explanadum (the event being explained) CAN be directly known, even if you are not at the moment in a position to know it.

uThe explanans (the conditions that are thought to have caused the event) may be disputed or may themselves require evidence or support. Nevertheless, they are accepted as being true in the explanatory passage under examination.

Before we do some groupwork, take note of your homework.

For Homework:

uMake a copy of page 9 of your logic text book.

uOn that copy, if the passage is an argument, write an “A” next to it. If the passage is an explanation, write an “E” next to it.

uDo the following passages: 1-6.

uAlso, do Homework #1 (handout).