PHIL 125: Philosophy of Science Syllabus for FALL 2021

Sacramento State site for COVID-19 Information & Resources

Prof. Merlino's PHIL 125 Sections 3 and 4 are combined in Canvas so that all enrolled students will have the same content and schedule.
Course Description

PHIL 125. Philosophy of Science. Study of the philosophical problems that arise in the sciences: the nature of scientific reasoning, the limits and styles of explanation, identifying pseudoscience, values in science, unity and diversity of the sciences, and science's impact on our world-view. Course satisfies Area B5 GE requirements. Units: 3.0

For General Education Area B5 Student Learning Outcomes, see the schedule below and the expanded description of specific objectives at the end of this syllabus.

Course Structure

This is a fully online course delivered via Canvas, the campus Learning Management System (LMS). Online activities include: Lectures in the form of slideshows, videos, readings, discussions, and quizzes. You will need to use the Internet and a campus-supported Web browser e.g., Firefox, Safari, or Chrome. For all assignments and especially quizzes, you must use a desktop, laptop or tablet. Do not use smartphones for quizzes, they are unreliable and have inadequate displays. There will be no Zoom or Google Meet sessions in this course.

Students in online courses should be independent, disciplined, self-motivated learners. Notice that there are numerous required activities you must accomplish on your own by specific deadlines. In addition to processing all of the material presented online within the modules, it is important that you stay in touch with me, let me know how it is going via email. Contact me ASAP when any confusion or problem arises - include a screenshot whenever possible.

Tutorials for Canvas. Each short video introduces components of the course that we use.

  1. Canvas Overview: community.canvaslms.com/videos/1124-canvas-overview-students
  2. Discussions: community.canvaslms.com/videos/1128-discussions-students
  3. Quizzes: community.canvaslms.com/videos/1134-quizzes-students
  4. Grades: community.canvaslms.com/videos/1131-grades-students

 

Required instructional materials

1. Philosophy of Science: Very Short Introduction, 2nd edition, by Samir Okasha, eISBN-13: 9780191062797, digital rental cost from RedShelf is about $5

2. Science and Religion: Are They Compatible? by Daniel Dennett and Alvin Plantinga, paperback, ISBN: 9780199738427, purchase cost from Amazon.com is about $20

3. Learning Modules, lecture/slideshows and other required material beyond the assigned text are all within Canvas or online. START HERE:

 

Schedule, arranged by Learning Module

Learning Modules presented within Canvas contain and organize course material into sections corresponding roughly to the Samir Okasha course text. Find additional course materials such as slides, videos, and articles not from the text within each module. It should take you about two weeks to work through the list of things in each module. With the exception of those items marked optional, all items within a module are required. Notice that the Schedule progresses intentionally through the Okasha text out of order from how the text itself arranges these chapters. For each week, see the Lecture/Slideshow within the corresponding module.


 

Module 1: Science and its critics - opens August 30, 2021

READ Okasha Ch. 7 and Handout 1, sections 0-7 (in the Canvas module)

Week 1. Introduction (see my Lecture/Slideshow within the module)
Week 2. Why do people respect and distrust science?

WATCH the FRONTLINE video "Alternative Fix" (via the link in the module)

EXPLORE links to additional material, videos and study questions in Canvas

Begin the Self-Study Assignment on Intelligent Design and Evolution in Canvas starting with this tutorial: Evolution 101 (UC Berkeley)

Essay Quiz 1 opens September 10, closes September 17


 

Module 2: What is science? - opens September 6, 2021

READ Okasha Ch. 1 and Handout 1, sections 7-15
Week 3. Why are most scientists and physicians so negative about alternative medicine?
Week 4. What standards and hierarchies of evidence do scientists use?


 

Module 3: Scientific reasoning - opens September 27, 2021

WATCH the FRONTLINE video "Vaccine War"

READ Okasha Ch. 2 and Handouts 2 and 3

Week 5. Isn't truth relative to one's perspective?
Week 6. What is scientific knowledge?
Week 7. What biases undermine scientific reasoning?
Week 8. How does scientific reasoning work? Part 1
Week 9. How does scientific reasoning work? Part 2

Essay Quiz 2 opens October 15, closes October 22


 

Module 4: Realism and anti-realism - opens November 1, 2021

READ Okasha Ch. 4 and Handout 4

Week 10. Does science describe reality?


 

Module 5: Scientific change and scientific revolutions - opens November 8, 2021

READ Okasha Ch. 5

Week 11. What limits science?

MIDTERM multiple-choice Quiz opens October 29, closes November 8


 

Module 6: Explanation in science

READ Okasha Ch. 3

Week 12-13. How do scientific explanations work?

Essay Quiz 3 opens November 29, closes December 13


 

Module 7: Philosophical problems in physics, biology, and psychology

READ Okasha Ch. 6

READ the entire Dennett and Plantinga text

Week 14-15. Naturalism vs. Supernaturalism: How do scientific and religious worldviews conflict?

FINAL multiple-choice Quiz opens December 13, closes December 18 - this is the Final


 

Assignments, Grades and Attendance
Assignments = Quizzes and Discussions

FIVE QUIZZES in Canvas: THREE essay quizzes (20 pts. each) plus TWO multiple-choice quizzes (20 pts. each), the first multiple-choice quiz is the Midterm quiz and the last is the Final Quiz. Quizzes are available for a limited time, see the deadline for each on the schedule. There are also TEN Discussion/Q & A sessions within Canvas.

 

Grades are NOT based on percentages

How do I determine your individual quiz grades? For essay quizzes, I use Philosophy department grading criteria and assign a score based on its letter-grade equivalent. I grade based on a standard GPA scale. Grades are NOT based on percentages. For multiple-choice quizzes, only your highest score counts. For a rough letter-grade estimate of your score for each 20 point quiz, divide by 4 to get an appx GPA letter-grade. So, if you earn an 8 on a quiz that is a D, if you earn a 12 that's a C, a 16 is about a B, etc.

How do I determine your overall course grade? Grades are NOT based on percentages, instead grades are based on total points accumulated. I add the scores you earn on all assignments, deduct any points lost for missed Discussions, then assign the final letter-grade based on my grading scale. For instance, if you earn a total of 82 points, then you receive a B for the course. Since rounding introduces error, I do not round scores up or down.

GRADING POLICY in the time of COVID-19. In general, students cannot re-take or make up any assignment after deadlines pass, absolutely, no exceptions, since I release and discuss answers. However, in documented cases of serious injury or illness (e.g. confirmed coronavirus infection), grades will be adjusted to accommodate hardship. Each case is different, we can work it out but you must contact me ASAP. There is no extra credit, extra credit is extra work, we don't have time or resources for more work. Everyone must be treated equitably: I cannot do for one person what I cannot do for everyone. Also, there are plenty of points available so that one can miss a quiz and still do well in the course.

Grade thresholds are as follows: The number on the left is the total number of points at the end of the course which corresponds to to the letter-grade on the right. Notice that it is impossible to earn an A without completing all quizzes.

Total points = Course Grade

91 or more = A

87-90 = A -

83-86 = B +

79-82 = B

73-78 = B -

69-72 = C +

65-68 = C

61-64 = C -

57-60 = D +

53-56 = D

49-52 = D -

less than 49 = F

 

Online Discussion participation is mandatory

There are 10 Discussions in Canvas that open on Mondays for your contributions, each closes on Fridays at 5 pm. I call these "Question and Answer (Q & A) sessions" which kind of replace what would otherwise be in-class interactions. Look for these to appear within Canvas under Discussions as they become available. Your posts in each open discussion are due on Wednesdays by 2 pm if you want me to comment on your thoughts when I join the online in the discussion from 2 to 5 pm. During this time I am also available by email for individual questions. Instead of in-class meetings, each discussion starts with a target video or article or other item from assigned course material for us to discuss. I solicit your thoughts about issues by asking you to answer specific questions. Your answers must occur within a Discussion post, no email responses accepted, this way we all can read and comment on each others thoughts.

If you miss a discussion, then you will miss something important, so arrange your life around being available to participate by Wednesday. Such meetings will present and discuss material for which you are responsible and about which you will be tested. You must contribute to each discussion while it is open byt Friday at 5 pm, otherwise your lack of participation can count against your final grade. It is OK if you are late to a discussion on Wednesday, but each closes promptly at 5 pm on Friday so that I can post final comments and answer questions by the end of the week. AFTER Finals Week, at the end of the semester, I take attendance retroactively by looking to see who has not contributed to a Wednesday discussions for each week. For every 4 missed discussions, that is, discussions in which a student does not contribute, I deduct 4 points from that student's final total of all points earned. So this means that anyone is excused for up to three meetings, however, after that non-participation counts against them.

How does one succeed in this course? At least every week, look at the Schedule on this Syllabus and view whatever material I describe within the row for that week. With the exception of the course texts, find material within Canvas Modules. New material will appear sequentially, work down each list within the open module. Try and keep up, but if you get behind, be sure to review what you have missed before proceeding. Pace yourself, there is no more or less content than an ordinary face-to-face course. Our current all online format can appear overwhelming if you try to consume too much at one go. Pay attention to deadlines for each assignment (essay, quiz or discussion), once these pass, you cannot make-up or re-do the work missed. Also, participate thoughtfully in Wednesday semi-live discussions in Canvas.

 

Services to CSUS Students

Services for Students with Disability (SSWD) Sacramento State is committed to ensuring an accessible learning environment where course or instructional content are usable by all students and faculty. If you believe that you require disability-related academic adjustments for this class, please immediately contact Services for Students with Disabilities (SSWD) to discuss eligibility. A current accommodation letter from SSWD is required before any modifications, above and beyond what is otherwise available for all other students in this class will be provided.

Student Health and Counseling Services Your physical and mental health are important to your success as a college student. Student Health and Counseling Services (SHCS) in The WELL offers medical, counseling, and wellness services to help you get and stay healthy during your time at Sac State. SHCS offers: Primary Care medical services, including sexual and reproductive healthcare, transgender care, and immunizations; urgent care for acute illness, injuries, and urgent counseling needs; pharmacy for prescriptions and over-the-counter products; mental health counseling, including individual sessions, group counseling, support groups, mindfulness training, and peer counseling; athletic training for sports injury rehabilitation; wellness services, including nutrition counseling, peerled health education and wellness workshops, and free safer sex supplies; violence and sexual assault support services. Most services are covered by the Health Services fee and available at no additional cost.

Crisis Assistance & Resource Education Support (CARES) If you are experiencing challenges with food, housing, financial or other unique circumstances that are impacting your education, help is just a phone call or email away. The CARES office provides case management support for any enrolled student.

 

CSUS Policies and Procedures Regarding Academic Honesty

Review all academic responsibilities, definitions, sanctions and rights described here. Student sharing or copying answers on tests is cheating, which is dishonest and violates campus codes of conduct. See especially the definitions of Cheating and Plagiarism in section IV.

Plagiarism is a serious academic offence and will not be tolerated in this class. Always use quotation marks and a footnote citation to indicate sentences or passages you borrow from another author. Assignments in which cheating or plagiarism is found will be assigned a failing grade. ALL incidents of either will be reported both to the Department Chair and to the Judicial Officer in the Office of Student Affairs for possible further administrative sanction.

 

Learning Outcome objectives for students in this course and how they are accomplished

1. Students will define basic theoretical terms used in science and philosophy. E.g.,

  1. Through the readings and discussions, students will understand the precise, technical senses of key terms such as 'hypothesis' and 'theory' in science, which depend upon clear definitions of 'truth' and 'justification' and 'knowledge' drawn from philosophy.
  2. Students will learn that the notion of "scientific proof" needs to be clarified in ordinary language, since it is either incoherent or self-contradictory. Loose, popular senses of these terms are vague and thus useless for making practical, mature decisions about whether to believe what scientists tell us.
  3. Also, in order to undertand the workings, goals, successes and limits of science, students must become familiar with one big scientific theory by interacting with the introductory, online Evolution 101 tutorial produced by the University of California Museum of Paleontology, Berkeley, and the Regents of the University of California. This tutorial and also videos and study questions posted online in this course constitute a learning module/self-study unit which all students must complete within the first half of the course. We discuss its content and implications throughout the course.

2. Students will distinguish various philosophical concepts, scientific theories and theoretical positions in their assignments.

  1. E.g., students must understand the significance of relativism and absolutism about truth for science.
  2. We discuss philosophical resolutions to the problem of discerning science from non-science (the demarcation problem).
  3. Students learn how to distinguish accuracy from precision in measurement, they will be able to say whether a test is valid or invalid, reliable or unreliable. Students will judge hypotheses as credible vs. incredible, verifiable or falsifiable, and apply this understanding to actual claims and cases in the literature in each class meeting.
  4. Students will learn why exactly correlation is required for causation but that correlation is not sufficient for causation.
  5. Students compare and contrast realism and non-realism about the aims and outcomes of science.
  6. Students will learn how to separate good science from bad science, and also understand the difference between believing and accepting a hypothesis.
  7. Since science has more rigorous standards of evidence than do journalism and courts of law, students will become familiar with standard criteria that scientists want satisfied before accepting any specific claim or hypothesis or theory.

3. Students will analyse specific scientific arguments and explanations for consistency and credibility.

  1. Understanding the difference between arguments and explanations is a crucial but rare skill; students will learn how to tell the difference and how to evaluate each sort of rationale appropriately.
  2. Students will be able to construct and criticize justifications for specific claims that people make (scientists and non-scientists alike). They will do this this by using logical inference patterns (deduction and induction) and scientific methods (such as literature searches and the randomized, controlled trial).
  3. Students also learn how to assess explanations of phenomena using empirical data, statistics, testable predictions, and alternative hypotheses.
  4. In particular, students will examine arguments for and against opinions about current controversies concerning the safety of vaccines and genetically modified organisms, the causes of global climate change, and also causes of apparent design, complexity and diversity in nature.
  5. Students and the instructor juxtapose the virtues and limits of evolutionary theory and intelligent design theory throughout the course.

4. Students cite critical observations, underlying assumptions and limits to explain and apply important models in the physical and life sciences.

  1. Students learn how to frame testable hypotheses about observable events in such a way that logical reasoning and controlled observations help us to accept tentatively that explanation which explains best.
  2. Throughout the course, students will be compelled to examine published research in peer-reviewed journals describing phenomena ranging from the efficacy and safety of herbal supplements to the unifying/explanatory power of evolutionary biology.
  3. Students will understand that the systematic lack of certainty in science, the use of probabilistic reasoning, the vulnerability of a null hypothesis to refutation, and the simplicity of theories that do not rely upon unobservables or supernatural forces are all strengths rather than weaknesses.

5. Students recognize evidence-based conclusions and form reasoned opinions about science-related matters of personal, public and ethical concern. E.g.,

  1. Students review actual experimental studies about the effectiveness of alternative medicine and learn why cohort studies are better than case reports and that both are inferior to systematic reviews and meta-analyses.
  2. Students will learn about the hierarchy of evidence in the life sciences and in particular learn about the significance of blinding and randomized controlled trials in biomedical science.
  3. Students will apply these evidence-standards to novel claims found in popular and scientific media and judge their quality.
  4. Students will find sources of scientific claims in the scientific literature, and cite references according to MLA or APA citation standards.

6. Students will enage in cogent and respectful discussion about historical and philosophical perspectives pertaining to the practice of science and medicine.

  1. Students learn how ancient and medieval philosophers asked basic questions about what the world was made of and how the cosmos worked but were not content with the answers of previous generations and cultures, and so set about finding out for themselves. We review and apply early methods of logical reasoning such as the Square of Opposition. The earliest thinkers spent much of their time examining, describing and explaining physical phenomena to whomever would listen and up until about 200 years ago anyone who did so with some success (that is, got others to agree with them) was called a natural philosopher. Science, as a product and process, is the intellectual progeny of philosophy. Modern scientists are empirical philosophers. In short, students understand that science as a public source of knowledge requires collective, controlled observations.
  2. Students understand why science is simultaneously respected and distrusted given that its findings are inconsistent with common-sense and traditonal beliefs.
  3. We discuss how ancient humoral theory of disease influenced the medieval idea of the four temperaments (choleric, melancholic, sanguine, and phlegmatic) and also popular chemical imbalance theories of behavior and the five-factor model of personality in modern psychology.
  4. Students examine and debate the persistent tension between religious and scientific perspectives on world-views and public policies. E.g., students learn why most scientists and philosophers believe that evidence-based reasoning and faith-based reasoning are incompatible: the former method requires a questioning, skeptical attitude (i.e. doubt) but the latter eschews it.
  5. Students will be able explain why religion is not science and why science is not a religion, and also contrast the merits and problems of incorporating non-science into science curricula.