Applied Ethics Intro

Philosophy is something you do - an activity: literally "love of wisdom"

• ask general questions about issues usually outside scope of religion, science or common-sense, then test answers by examining basic beliefs and their implications (preferring those justified by rational reasons) —seek wisdom by checking facts, analyzing concepts (e.g., truth, knowledge, autonomy, justice, righteousness...) and justifying evaluations based on facts, values and substantiated beliefs.
  
  
• sometimes finding out what is not true or figuring out what one should at least not do is progress...
  
  
• three levels of certainty make our judgments difficult to evaluate:
  
  
  • opinion - beliefs without thought (often inconsistent and vague)
  • belief - thoughts/beliefs you have thought about (enough to make them consistent with each other but perhaps false)
  • knowledge - true beliefs with substantial evidence. Either empirical or rational evidence...this is what philosophers want most.
    

ETHICS seeks standards for moral behavior expressed in the form of ruling principles.

What moral principles do you have?

In doing Ethics (or moral philosophy) we rely on the use of reason to establish knowledge and justify actions or policies:

• Rationalizing is trying to find plausible justification for an act you have already done or decided to do. This approach is too self-serving and vulnerable to caprice and wishful thinking.
  
  
• Reasoning is thinking and finding a defensible justification before you act. This approach is best where people respect each other and seek credible evidence and mutual support for their actions.

MORAL STANDARDS of conduct, as opposed to non-moral standards,

1. GUIDE ACTIONS that have serious consequences for human welfare;
2. TAKE PRIORITY over other non-moral standards;
3. ARE GENERALLY ACCEPTABLE if they have adequate, justifiable reasons to support them.

"A MORAL PERSON is one who knows the good, desires the good, does the good."

BEING MORAL implies minimally HAVING AND BEHAVING IN A MANNER CONSISTENT WITH HUMAN INTERESTS...

MORAL CONCERNS PRECEDE, MOTIVATE and OVERRIDE LEGAL or PROFESSIONAL RESTRICTIONS because laws and codes are the result of societies desire to protect and serve human moral interests.

PURPOSE OF MORALITY = make social existence possible by restraining purely self-interested behavior

Three areas of ethics:

1. Descriptive ethics: What standards to people have? This is just anthropology, a sociological exercise—not philosophical.
2. Theoretical ethics: How do we define "morally right"? Produce a coherent world-view and test it.
3. Applied ethics: What ought I to do? Apply theories to real subjects of controversy; use their principles and issue judgments.

In Theoretical ethics we try to define standards of right and wrong. Any definition or theory should have four characteristics:

• 1. Consistency: does the theory give similar results in similar situations...a good moral theory has to find if we recommend different moral treatment, then there must be a morally relevant difference between the two.
  
  
• 2. Understandability:
• Utilitarianism - easily understood: allow only concern for beneficial consequences in your deliberations
• Kantianism - harder to understand, but with work can be done: allow no speculation about desired consequences to cloud judgments
  
  
• 3. Intuitiveness of results...if the theory counters our moral values or intuitions then you need to look at the theory. (Example - not OK to execute innocent person if all believe they are guilty and seek closure...)
  
  
• 4. Universalizability - if it applies to one it should apply to all.

In Applied ethics we adopt standards or rules based on theory, then apply to practical or professional issues. Any application of ethics must be practical. So applied ethics adds a fifth characteristic to ethical reasoning:

• 5. Practicality - a rule or action or policy needs to be practical, feasible and enforceable.

Principlism: Suppose these four fundamental moral principles must be upheld at all times.

1. Promote autonomy. - "Don't limit the freedom of oneself or others unnecessarily."

2. Be non-maleficent. - "Do no more harm than is necessary to benefit any patient."

3. Establish justice. - "All persons are equals and all deserve equitable, impartial treatment."

4. Respect life. - "Persons are special and should be protected and treated with dignity."

APPLICATION: Murder violates all four, Stealing violates 1, 2, 3. - so - it seems to meet the criteria above. But - what happens when we apply it to other problems?

Euthanasia: if we allow, we violate 4; if we do not allow, we violate 1 and 2.

Capital Punishment: if we allow, 4 is violated; if not - 2 could be.

Abortion: if we allow - 4 is violated, arguably 3 and maybe 2; if not, 1 is violated, probably 3 and possibly 2.

How do you resolve the conflict between principles? (Hint - if you have decided any of the issues above, you have already resolved the conflict)

Best method: Rank moral principles according to priority of moral values...

E.g., (1) Preserve LIFE; (2) Promote AUTONOMY; (3) Ensure EQUALITY, (4) Cultivate COMPASSION, (5) Encourage HONESTY...

We must rank our principles in order of importance based on the moral value each supports. The key is consistency of principles and judgments with values.

So, if Abortion is wrong because 4 is more important than 1, but Capital Punishment (CP) is OK because 2 (for society) is more important than 4 - then we have a problem. This ranking makes non-maleficence more important than the sanctity of life - which means (if we are consistent) that if it is in the best interests of society to abort a fetus, it is morally OK (even if the mother does not think so).

To remain consistent, one's position on either CP or Abortion must change.

Main Three Principles in Bioethics: Preserve patient AUTONOMY, Promote care-giver BENEFICENCE, Ensure social JUSTICE...